The incidence of malignant melanoma is rising faster than that of any other cancer in the United States; reportedly, melanoma diagnoses doubled from 1986 to 2001[1]. Melanoma progression is associated with altered expression of cell surface proteins, including adhesion proteins and receptors [2-7]. It has been estimated that over 80% of malignant melanomas express high levels of the melanocyte stimulating hormone (.alpha.MSH) receptor, melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) [8]; thus, MC1R has been investigated as a target for selective imaging and therapeutic agents. MC1R belongs to a family of five G protein-coupled receptors (MC1R-MC5R) known as the “melanocortins.” The melanocortins have been discovered in a wide range of tissues and organs throughout the body, ranging from the hair/skin (MC1R) [9] and kidneys (MC5R) [10] to the adrenal gland (MC2R) [11] and hypothalamus (MC3R/MC4R) [12, 13] and are known to play a role in skin pigmentation, hair coloration, obesity, metabolism, diabetes, sexual behavior, erectile dysfunction, stress response and mood. [9-16] Endogenously, the agonists for the melanocortins are the .alpha.-, .beta.-, .gamma.-melanocyte stimulating hormones (MSH) and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH, MC2R specific), all of which contain the same central sequence of His-Phe-Arg-Trp (SEQ ID NO:1) [17]. This high degree of pharmacophore homology makes it difficult to design a selective ligand which is highly specific for receptor subtype.
Due to its high expression on the surface of melanomas, MC1R has been investigated as a target for selective imaging and therapeutic agents, and a number of selective ligands have been developed [18-20]. The most well known of these, [Nle.sup.4,D-Phe.sup.7]-.alpha.-MSH, has been investigated extensively by Chen who showed that .sup.99mTc-CGCG labeled NDP-.alpha.-MSH bound to melanomas with very high avidity (6.5% ID/g) [21]. Unfortunately, NDP-.alpha.-MSH has also been shown to possess relatively strong nanomolar binding affinities with MC3R, MC4R and MC5R as well [22-24]. Such off-target binding is highly undesirable given the presence of these receptors in sensitive organs such as the kidney and brain. A co-injection of lysine has been reported to diminish off-target binding in the kidneys [21, 25, 26], and presumably most agents will not be able to cross the blood-brain barrier; nonetheless, the need for the development of highly specific and selective ligands against MC1R is one of importance.
The development of ligands that can be attached to micelles and/or liposomes and designed to selectively target cancer cells relative to healthy organs represents a major hurdle in current research. Many such attempts fail either from (1) a loss of affinity resulting from the attachment of small peptides to large micelles or liposomes; (2) an inherent instability that results in collapse before entering the vicinity of the tumor; or (3) a nanoparticle size that is too large to escape the vasculature. In order to effectively design targeted particles, each of these issues must be addressed.